Traditionally, the battered women's movement and domestic violence theory have focused on heterosexual battering and the perpetration of violence by men. Only within recent years has violence in lesbian relationships begun to be acknowledged and addressed. The reality of women battering other women challenges societal stereotypes of women and dismantles the structure of gender-based, sociopolitical domestic violence theory. In addition, for lesbians to acknowledge battering in their relationships stands in opposition to the lesbian myth of healthy, violence-free, egalitarian relationships. Consequently, the reluctance to acknowledge lesbian battering has been significant, both within mainstream society as well as in the lesbian community.
This article will propose that a multidimensional theory of partner abuse, which incorporates an emphasis on individual personality dynamics, is necessary in order to more fully understand the heterogeneity of batterers. After an overview of battering in lesbian relationships, various theoretical perspectives on domestic violence will be highlighted. This will be followed by an examination of batterer's personality traits and the relationship between psychopathology and battering in lesbian relationships. Although this article is primarily concerned with the relationship between personality and domestic violence in lesbian relationships, this is not meant to infer that lesbians have higher levels of psychopathology than any other group.
In Summary, research has demonstrated that violence in lesbian relationships is a significant problem that can no longer be overlooked. Although many of the dynamics involved in lesbian battering are similar to those of heterosexual battering, there are also some significant differences. In order to better understand the phenomenon of women battering other women, we must reexamine domestic violence theory and consider some of the similarities and differences that exist between heterosexual male violence and lesbian battering.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE THEORY
As exemplified by the occurrence of lesbian battering, domestic violence is a complex phenomenon that in my opinion, is best understood through the use of a multidimensional theory. These dimensions include sociopolitical factors, social learning theory, family dynamics, physiological factors, and individual personality dynamics.
Sociopolitical Factors A sociopolitical analysis of domestic violence contributes an understanding of how social systems, cultural beliefs, and political factors facilitate and perpetuate the occurrence of battering. For example, social stress, social isolation, low socioeconomic status, and rigid sex roles have been identified as factors that tend to increase the incidence of violence in couples and families. As a result of living in a patriarchal society that condones male domination, subordination, and control of women, social relationships tend to be hierarchical. Moreover, violence is often viewed as a socially acceptable means for both groups and individuals to exert power and maintain dominance over others. The widespread institutionalization of such oppression is evident in the social tenets of sexism, heterosexism, racism and classism. Since we live within a cultural atmosphere of hierarchical structures and patriarchal values, the predominant model for intimate relationships is one of domination and subordination. These values and relationship norms are internalized by women, as well as men. Consequently, even in lesbian relationships there is a heightened potential for one partner to seek domination and control over the other.
Social Learning Theory and Family Dynamics
Social learning theory suggests that violence is a way of coping one learns through observation and experience. In our society, violence is a common phenomenon that penetrates almost every aspect of daily life. One of the most fundamental arenas for learning is one's family. The intergenerational transmission of domestic violence is one component of social learning theory. An intergenerational model of battering purports that children who grow up in families where they experience violence, either by witnessing violence between their caretakers or by being the victim of violent acts, are more likely to incorporate violent behavior as a coping mechanism. As adults, these individuals may then pass on a legacy of violence in their own families.
Individual Variables and Partner Abuse
Historically, many theorists and persons working in the field of domestic violence have been hesitant to acknowledge individual variables as a significant component in battering, for fear that such a perspective would detract from important sociopolitical factors and serve as an excuse for violent behavior. Rather than negating the importance of social influences, the consideration of individual factors as mediating variables in domestic violence can complement sociological and sociopolitical perspectives.
PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF BATTERERS
Characteristics of Heterosexual Male Batterers
Researchers have found that Heterosexual Male Batterers exhibited the following personality traits:
Asocial/borderline, narcissistic/antisocial, and dependent/compulsive personality traits, higher levels of anxiety, depression, somatic complaints, unemployment, separation and divorce, problems with substance abuse, less education, poor reality testing, distorted thought processes, greater rigidity, a lack of resourcefulness in problem solving, impulsivity, moodiness, higher levels of violence in the family of origin.
Characteristics of Lesbian Batterers Anecdotal reports indicate that Lesbian Batterers display the following characteristics: Alcohol and drug abuse, feelings of powerlessness, low self-esteem, overly dependent and jealous, fears of abandonment, poor communication skills, and inability to empathically relate to their partners.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
According to psychodynamic theory, personality disorders result form early childhood traumas and disruptions in interpersonal relations. Two psychoanalytical perspectives that are useful in conceptualizing personality development and psychopathology are object-relations theory and self-psychology. In general object-relations theorists focus on how one's intrapsychic structure and personality are shaped through the incorporation of external objects in to the psyche.
Although self psychology also emphasizes interpersonal relationships and the role of the environment n individual development, the primary focus is on the structure of the self and the organizations of the self-object is "neither a self or object" but the intrapsychic experience of one's relationship to another,"...who by their presence or activity evoke and maintain the self and the experience of selfhood"
THE BORDERLINE AND NARCISSISTIC DISORDERS
According to psychodynamic theory, the borderline and narcissistic disorders both involve basic deficits in the self resulting from early trauma and a failure to negotiate the separation- individuation process of normal development. Although individuals may have traits common to both disorders, they differ in their specific structure and the resulting symptomatology.
Batterers with Borderline Personality Disorder
For individuals with borderline personality disorders, the following characteristics are common:
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fear of abandonment
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poor boundaries and a lack of a clear sense of self
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poor impulse control
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poor reality testing under stress
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lack of frustration tolerance
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need for immediate gratification
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lack of ability to self-soothe
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fragile self-cohesion
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super-ego deficits
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problems in self-esteem regulation
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poor affect regulation
Many of these characteristics are easily identifiable in individuals who batter. For batterers with a borderline personality structure, abandonment fear tends to be a central issue.
Batterers with a Narcissistic Personality Disorder The Primary characteristics of narcissistic personality disorder include:
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grandiose self-importance
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hypersensitivity to criticism
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lack of empathy
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blame of others
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interpersonal exploitation
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need for power and success
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feelings of envy
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fragile self esteem
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sense of entitlement
Although conflicts regarding jealousy and envy are common in lesbian relationships, for the lesbian batterer with a narcissistic disorder these issues can result in increased threats to her self- esteem. In contrast, for batterers with a borderline character structure, fear of abandonment may be intensified.
TREATMENT IMPLICATIONS
It is important to note that although there may be some overlap, individuals with narcissistic character structures differ in significant ways from those with borderline personality disorder. For instance, for batterers with borderline personality disorder, salient areas of treatment include limited tolerance of affect, lack of impulse control, the use of defenses such as splitting and projection, and fear of abandonment. In contrast, treatment goals for batterers with narcissistic personality disorder include increasing capacity for empathy, decreasing hypersensitivity to criticism, and increasing tolerance for, and the ability to cope with, feelings of powerlessness and envy. In addition, the defensive use of onmipotence and entitlement must be gently confronted and gradually replaced by the development of self-worth and self-confidence that is independent of others. For those batterers who were victims of childhood abuse, the trauma they experienced must be internally integrated in order for them to develop an integrated self-identity and the capacity for appropriate relationships with others.
For lesbians with borderline personality disorder, the development of a cohesive sense of self may be facilitated by addressing issues related to internalized homophobia and misogyny. In addition, clinicians working with lesbians should be knowledgeable of and sensitive to dynamics in lesbian relationships that may compound some of the difficulties (i.e. merger/autonomy) that are inherent in the borderline personality disorder.
When working with any lesbian batterer, the interrelationship between factors specific to the lesbian community and feelings of envy, powerlessness, and worthlessness must be assessed and addressed. For example, the clinician must be knowledgeable about the impact of both internal and external homophobia, as well as misogyny. In addition, he or she must be aware of how feelings of envy and jealousy may be heightened for lesbian batterers with narcissistic personality traits.
Although the above are some general treatment considerations, one must keep in mind that there are numerous individual differences among batterers who may share a common diagnosis. Although diagnostic categories can provide clinicians with a useful framework for organizing developmental differences and various symptomatology, an individual is not merely a diagnosis. Consequently, therapeutic interventions must be tailored to address each batterer's unique internal structure and interpersonal dynamics.
Furthermore, the impact of sociocultural factors must be considered. For instance, stress often results from a lack of social, psychological, and economic resources-leading to feelings of inadequacy and powerlessness. It is important to note that although such stressors do not cause violence, violent behavior is often used as an attempt to regain a sense of power and control. These issues are particularly salient for lesbians and gays, who as a result of homophobia are faced with discrimination, social isolation, and a general lack of available and accessible resources.
Traditionally, group therapy programs, which often include cognitive-behavioral strategies and psychoeducational techniques, have been the predominant form of treatment for batterers. For group treatment to be effective with lesbian batterers, groups must be designed to address cultural issues, such as the impact of homophobia, that are specific to lesbians. Regardless of the batterer's gender or sexual orientation, therapeutic interventions that address his or her internal deficits and accompanying defensive structure are essential. For some batterers, individual treatment may be most effective in conjunction with group treatment, whereas for others, individual therapy may follow group treatment. Although not every batterer will be able to benefit from such a treatment format, for those that do, recidivism rates may be greatly reduced.
CONCLUSION
To acknowledge lesbian battering challenges traditional ways of conceptualizing and addressing domestic violence. There has been a tendency within the domestic violence movement to focus on patriarchal values and sociocultural institutions while excluding the importance of personality variables. Although women, as well as men, internalize an ideology of domination and subordination, gender-based sociopolitical theories of domestic violence cannot adequately explain why lesbian battering occurs at rates comparable to that of heterosexual battering.
Studies have shown that, regardless of sexual orientation, personality characteristics play a significant role in the perpetration of domestic violence. Although battering by both men and women has been linked to feelings of powerlessness, low self-esteem, and fear of abandonment, men and women tend to internally experience and deal with these struggles in different ways. Further research is needed to determine the extent to which factors such as child abuse, misogyny, and internalized homophobia influence lesbian battering.
By Vallerie E. Coleman, Ph. D.